How should the Daintree be managed?

The Daintree rainforest is situated in North East Queensland, Australia, it is a biodiversity hotspot, biodiversity being the variation of species in an ecosystem, due to its warm tropical climate and close location to the Great Barrier Reef. The Daintree is home to hundreds of species many of which are endemic so it is therefore crucial to protect the rainforest through management schemes to conserve biodiversity whilst utilising the rainforest for communities. The Daintree has many ecological, cultural and importantly economic benefits for local communities as it harbours species with medicinal qualities, is a place of spirituality for aborigines and is a large tourist industry supplying much of the local income. However with tourism and use of the rainforest comes a threat to the biodiversity. When managing the Daintree it is vital to conserve the biodiversity that has been here for millions of years whilst allowing people to enjoy the rainforest and help to fund conservation through economic use of the rainforest.

Biodiversity conservation is a management scheme crucial for the Daintree, by limiting development and retaining 540 blocks of land for pure wildlife whilst reducing planning permission for forest cut backs, habitats and species will remain safe. The Douglas Shire Council imposed planning controls and monitored the impacts of tourism as a management scheme, by allowing tourism they allowed a source of income which in return could be used to fund conservation whilst monitoring the effects of tourism such as pollution and litter. If the level of damage caused by tourism were to become unsustainable, stricter management schemes would be needed such as a limit to the number of tourists allowed per year or guidelines that must be followed by each tourist with a resulting fine if the rules were not abided by. By preserving the biodiversity in the ecosystem the rainforest will retain its natural beauty and species and remain a tourism destination however if management schemes incur boundaries and limited development such as no electricity up to Cooper Creek, tourists may be deterred from visiting having a negative impact on the local economy. Conservation may also be costly and therefore reliant on local government spending or charities, this dependency may mean the Daintree is at risk of a lack of conservation as charity funds can fluctuate.

Whilst conservation is necessary in the Daintree as it provides medicines, spirituality and biodiversity it is also necessary to manage the economic aspect of the rainforest to ensure efficiency and sustainability from the economic activity. The Douglas Shire council also set up plans to actually increase tourists to 550,000 a year to sustain the local economy and improve tourist facilities, including education of the importance of the Daintree. However increasing the number of tourists may increase the threat as tourism can cause litter, footpath erosion and damage so this may not be sustainable. They suggested the ferry price should be raised by $4 to deter some tourists to manage levels whilst using the profit from the ferry transport to assist community infrastructure for locals and biodiversity conservation. Another management scheme involved basing employment on tourism, organic farming, tropical horticulture and small businesses to help the community to gain economic success whilst using “green” schemes to preserve the natural area. By managing a balance between using the Daintree for economic means and using the profit to aid communities and conservation to preserve this ancient hotspot, the Daintree will be able to sustain many more years.

Local governments and councils devised management schemes however charities also help in the management of the Daintree. The Australian Rainforest Foundation is a not for profit scheme dedicated to education, research and habitat rehabilitation. The ARF proposed a management scheme called Operation Big Bird to protect the Cassowary bird in the Daintree, they created a 250km corridor to enable the birds movement, feeding and protection. They also implement a Buy-Back scheme whereby they purchase land from developers in order to reduce the available land for development so it is not destroyed, however this is incredibly costly and may cause conflict with key players such as landowners and investors perhaps management would be more efficient if the ARF were to work together with landowners to plan what is sustainable development and what will cause harm to biodiversity. Local authorities can also help manage the Daintree by providing education on its importance and monitoring the effects of tourism, key functions of the Wet Tropics Management Authority based in Cairns. Its locality means it will know local residents needs and be able to strike a balance between economic and biodiversity needs.

The Daintree has been around for 135 million years practically untouched however in the last 100 years tourism and development have created threats to the high level of biodiversity present. Therefore it is crucial to protect and conserve this hotspot with the help of government policies and charities. The Daintree however is important on not just a biodiversity level but for economic activity so management schemes must incorporate management of income and development into plans so that the Daintree can continue to boost the local economy but not at the expense of the wildlife within it.

Using examples, assess the relative importance of human and physical factors influencing levels of biodiversity.

4 billion years of evolution has resulted in the variation of plants and animals in the largest biome – the earth. Biodiversity is the variation of life forms within an ecosystem or, on a macro scale, a biome. It is often thought the greater the level of biodiversity the healthier an ecosystem is, there are three types of biodiversity: species diversity, the variation of a species, genetic, the diversity between genes in a species and ecosystem diversity which is the variation of ecosystems in an area. With biospheres offering both tangible goods such as medicines and services such as carbon sequestration, preservation of biodiversity rich areas is vital. Physical and human factors can have an evident influence on levels of diversity, both beneficial and costly.

Climate, it could be argued is an extremely influential factor on biodiversity, as many ecosystems are vulnerable to even slight temperature changes. A future global warming could therefore lower the levels of biodiversity as species may find their current biomes inhospitable. The moist and warm equatorial climate of the Amazon rainforest creates an ecosystem for species to thrive in. Tropical climates have an important influence on creating biodiversity hotspots, similarly desert climates have the same influence on biodiversity except the influence is very dissimilar. In sub-saharan Africa the low precipitation levels and temperatures exceeding forty degrees Celsius create an inhospitable environment and sometimes inhabitable location for many species, the lack of plant biodiversity can create a negative multiplier effect as there are few species of animals who can survive on the limited nutrients gained by the lack of plant species and consequently the level of animal biodiversity decreases.  Physical factors such climates are increasingly important in biodiversity levels as global warming intensifies temperatures could rise which could damage fragile ecosystems such as the desert as it could exacerbate the already sparse biodiversity.

Biodiversity in areas such as coral reefs and rainforests is often beautiful as many different colourful species of plants and animals present, this has attracted tourists both global and domestic to visit areas such as The Great Barrier Reef and The Daintree Rainforest. Whilst tourism is incredibly beneficial for the economy providing a source of income it can also be destructive. Pollution from cruise ships and ferries bringing tourists in to view these locations can cause harm to species and water quality which could eradicate a habitat and therefore its inhabitants. The Daintree Rainforest tourism industry is estimated to be over $141 million a year however due to much of the land being privately owned some owners have used their profits to bulldoze trees and create cattle ranches which can have an adverse effect on both the ecosystem and environment as methane pollution is created which can reverse the carbon sequestration the rainforest provides. Human factors can also have a detrimental effect and worsen physical factors, for example coral reefs act as natural shoreline protection against wave erosion , if coral reefs are destroyed by humans due to extracting coral for jewellery and over fishing then the natural protection will diminish, exacerbating the effect of physical factors such as erosion on a beach ecosystem. However, whilst tourism may cause some destruction it could be argued the large revenue they bring could be used to fund preservation of these ecosystems which could create an influx in the level of biodiversity as their ecosystems are not tampered with. There are a multitude of human factors which can influence the level of biodiversity both negative and positive; to be able to visit beautiful biodiversity hotspots we must prevent their destruction in doing so.

Biodiversity hotspots are areas with variation of species in abundance, they also are often home to endemic species making them extremely valuable. The reasons for a hotspot are mainly physical for example Madagascar’s isolated location as an island has created endemism with species such as the Madagascan Lemur and Boabab tree. Another physical factor is the range of volcanoes present in Madagascar which create rich and fertile soil around them which plants can thrive on. However Madagascar’s physical factors could also influence the level of biodiversity in a negative way as isolation and endemism could mean if a species becomes extinct in Madagascar it will become extinct worldwide, reducing species diversity.  The Galapagos Islands are also a biodiversity hotspot as the physical factor of a confluence of three oceans creates a wealth of marine life, however important human factors such as over fishing can not only disrupt food chains and habitats but may also cause extinction of certain species.

Whether it be species, genetic or ecosystem diversity, both physical and human factors bode much importance concerning the influence on the level of variation. Biomes and ecosystems are at risk from many human factors such as tourism and often hindered by physical factors that are uncontrollable. However both physical and human factors can have a positive influence on biodiversity such as tropical climate or conservation. As species evolve and develop so will the impact of physical and human factors both offering an important influence on biodiversity.

With reference to examples examine the impact of alien species on an ecosystem.

Alien species are animals or plants that are foreign to a certain ecosystem, an ecosystem is the dynamics of a certain habitat or ecological location. Once an alien species is immersed into its new habitat it can be both beneficial and negative. Alien species or invasive species can disrupt this dynamic as each trophic level will incur an influx or decrease for example the accidental introduction of the Gypsy Moth in 1869 caused a decrease in vegetation in forests on the East coast of North America as they ate the majority of the leaves, this has an impact on both the producer, as they decreased due to destruction and the trophic level one or consumer, as other animals were unable to use this food source.  Despite this example being accidental introduction, whereby alien species move unintentionally, species are sometimes introduced to provide a purpose usually to benefit its new ecosystem, however the outcomes are often difficult to predict. As the globe becomes more mobile and accessible, alien species are more common. With the introduction of aviation and ships species can be moved to a new environment and disrupt the balance of an ecosystem.

Alien species are sometimes referred to as invasive, this suggests a negative impact of the introduction of alien species. An ecological negative impact alien species can cause is the contribution of foreign disease that native species are not immune to, for example Starling birds were intentionally introduced to America in 1800’s, they brought with them pathogens which contributed to various swine diseases affecting the current ecosystem as diseases spread killing livestock. A further negative impact of the Starling birds was the displacement of native birds, as new alien species are introduced so is new competition for food and habitats, this caused native birds to decline, disrupting the food chain as level three consumers had less to eat. Another example of this is the accidental introduction of the Argentine Fire ant in 1891, this new invasive species spread rapidly and contributed to the reduction of ant species from fifteen to just five in Texas. This suggests alien species have a negative impact on the native, pre-existing species in an ecosystem, this can reduce biodiversity as one alien species can monopolise an ecosystem.

It may seem unusual that alien species can cause economic damage as they are not as influential as human factors such as deforestation or tourism. However the overpopulation of alien species can result in large economic costs for example Deer were introduced in the 1900’s to Angel Island in the San Fransissco Bay area for the purpose of a game reserve, however they quickly reproduced and outgrew the natural food supply, thus competing with native species but starving themselves. Tourists often fed the deer and thus repopulation occurred, the problem continued until the Government had to remove the deer in a lengthy project that cost over $60,000. Another alien species that was accidentally introduced is the Zebra Mussel which was imported from the Caspian sea to the United States in the 1980’s, this alien species began to clog waterways resulting in damage that it is estimated to have cost $5million. Alien species can cause negative impacts for the animals and plants in an ecosystem but also for humans on a local and regional scale due the economic damage caused.

Whilst many alien species can cause negative impacts on an ecosystem there are positive results of the introduction of new animals or plants. Honeysuckle is an alien species in the Happy Valley region of Pennsylvania, whilst considered invasive it is actually beneficial to the area as the bird communities and honeysuckle have formed a relationship. The honeysuckle provides a food source for birds creating biodiversity as species can survive, but also the birds provide re-pollination of the honeysuckle to allowing it to continue to spread, this mutual benefit for both trophic levels is aiding biodiversity and creating a thriving ecosystem due to the introduction of this alien species.

Alien species in their nature are unnatural to an ecosystem, they will disrupt or alter the balance and dynamic of an ecosystem whether it be negatively or positively. Invasive species can cause dramatic changes in the levels of biodiversity in certain ecosystems and cause damage financially, creating a problem for animals, plant and humans. Many species have been originally introduced intentionally for a purpose such as the Deer in Angel Island however the consequences are often not predictable or thought about beforehand creating these negative impacts which could have been prevented had the species not been introduced on purpose. Despite the multitude of problems an alien species can cause, as shown with the honeysuckle example, there can be benefits if both alien and native species adapt to co-exist. 

Reconciliation between the environment and economic development

Biodiversity is the term for the variation in species, high levels of biodiversity in an ecosystem can provide many services and benefits for both people and the planet, so conserving biodiversity in all ecosystems especially hotspots is a crucial part of the future. Another vital element of the future is economic development, with LEDC’s experiencing absolute poverty and the wealth gap widening, economic development will also provide benefits for things such as healthcare and quality of life. The relationship between conserving biodiversity and economic development is often conflicting as economic development in terms of urbanisation can mean deforestation and pollution. Stakeholders such as business owners, TNC’s and environmental charities and groups like WWF have different opinions when it comes to conservation. Biodiversity is often highest in LDC’s where land is left pristine with little economic development, but as development occurs in LEDC’s and NIC’s conservation becomes less of a priority over profit. However, once a country reaches MEDC status it tends to place more importance on conserving ecosystems and has the economic funds to do so due to its prior economic development suggesting that perhaps conserving and economic development can actually go hand in hand.

Ecosystems offer services such as carbon sequestration, medicines and sources of food, however overconsumption of these services and over harvesting can cause extinction and degradation. If humans continue to harvest services at an unsustainable yield  for economic purposes such as cattle ranches for beef, fishing to improve the market and profit and medicines for advancement, these ecosystems will be in jeopardy.  However, whilst an unsustainable yield makes the reconciliation of conservation and economic development improbable, schemes and projects such as the SMMA in St Lucia can help to balance protection and still continue to use the ecosystem for economic benefits for the community. The SMMA was created in response to conflict between marine conservation of coral reefs and industries like fishing and tourism in 1995. They managed the area and conservation of fish species with local stakeholders to ensure conservation did not prevent economic benefits and vice versa. This is an example of how conservation of biodiversity and economic development can co-exist.

The WWF Living Planet Report 2012 highlighted the problems of economic development on conservation, showing how demand of services from the natural world for the developed world is outstripping supply. The LPI has declined by 30% in just 38 years suggesting how increased economic development that has rapidly occurred in the last 50 years has had a negative effect. The LPR also highlighted how if the whole world were to live like an American resident does, using ecosystem services, we would need a total of 4 more Earths to supply this demand showing the vast overconsumption. As the USA is considered one of the worlds most economically developed countries, this statement suggests that economic development and conservation of the natural world are conflicting suggesting it is impossible to reconcile the two.

The Milliennium Ecosystem Assessment was carried out in 2001-2005 and found that changes made to ecosystems have contributed to economic development however at the expense of degradation. They have proposed 4 scenarios for the future of conservation and economic development, scenario 4 “The Technogarden” proposes a most likely eventuality. It suggests the world will become more globally connected and rely strongly on environmentally sound technology and create ecosystems, taking a proactive approach to the management of ecosystems in an effort to avoid further problems. In this scenario technology is continuing to advance and economic growth is high whilst using this technology to create environmentally friendly resources thus enabling conservation and reducing pollution and degradation. The MEA scenario 4 suggests using economic development and technological advancements to conserve biodiversity suggesting not only has biodiversity aided economic development due to its services but in the future economic development will help biodiversity.

Both conservation of biodiversity and economic development are fundamental for the future, often having a conflicting relationship whereby one cannot work with the other in the past perhaps new projects and ideas will alter this once toxic relationship. As many countries begin to excel out of less economically developed country status and move into industrialisation there is concern that further degradation will occur preventing conservation of some of the worlds most precious ecosystems however as suggested by the MEA perhaps once this process of economic development has settled, attention can be turned to preserve and conserve biodiversity using the technology and funds from economic development. Biodiversity offers services used in economic development, whilst economic development can offer the funds to conervse biodiversity suggesting a mutual relationship and suggesting reconciliation is both possible and projected. 

Assess relative importance of cultural, economic and military factors for superpower status

Superpower status is a nations ability to project dominating influence anywhere in the world, the world has moved through stages of uni-polar, bi-polar and seems to be progressing towards a multi-polar world in which there are many superpowers. Superpower is perhaps ambiguous as there are many aspects to a superpower such as economic wealth, military and cultural dominance as well as population and natural resources. Many countries are superpower’s in their own rights each with different attributes, however in the modern world it could be argued Superpower status is more about topicality and culture than hard power such as military force, perhaps if all the world’s a stage then being a superpower is about stage presence.

Britain could be considered the worlds first superpower, industrialising first and through pseudo-scientific scripture the British believed they were superior to the aborigines and indigenous people of America, Indo-Australia and Africa. Establishing a large military was perhaps one of the main components of Britain’s colonial power, as it allowed them to physically conquer and plunder other nations within these continents. A large military force prior to the Post Modern era was perhaps the most important factor as it could be a threatening and violent force that also maintained colonial power for example the British Raj. It was perhaps most important due to the absence of the media and TNC’s that now transmit cultural power and similarly the global economy was infantile in comparison suggesting perhaps economic power was not of great importance. However, that said, military power is still a crucial component of superpower status especially in times of global tension for instance the Cold War and the current political tensions between two rivals of a by-gone era. Nuclear military power is perhaps a modern day element, possessed by the world’s G8 giving them considerable threatening and bargaining power, similarly rising China has established a large military rank. Military power was perhaps the most important feature in the past and perhaps is having new found importance in terms of a threat.

It could be argued economic power in a predominantly capitalist world is an important factor, all the world’s perceived superpowers also hold substantial wealth, wealth is often considered to equate power. The USA could be an example of this, it rose to superpower status after WWII as Europe experienced bankruptcy after the war, the USA however during the war had supplied much equipment for a profit and was now the world’s leading manufacturer similar to that of China and India at present. The USA has over 25% of the world’s GDP and a high percentage of votes in IGO’s and financial institutions such as the World Bank and IMF. This also creates superpower status as control and dominance can be acquired through these organisations as they dictate regulations and loans, dependency theorists may argue the USA can project its imperialism through the IMF’s Structural Adjustment Policies which influence governments in the developing world, acquired by a large voting percentage due to economic wealth. Economic power is perhaps a more subtle and less intrusive form of superpower control yet it is highly influential, wealth is a powerful tool in the modern world.

Cultural power is perhaps the most important factor as it affects civilians and governments alike, whereas economic power is perhaps exclusive to the elite. Cultural power is maintained and transmitted via the media, an entity that exists in almost every nation, even in sub-saharan villages there will be American advertising. It could be argued the USA holds most cultural power with the internationalisation of capitalism, a predominantly American ideology, and Mcdonaldisation, American culture has infiltrated many other cultures. The world could be argued to have becomes as far as culturally homogenous due to the USA’s intrusive and relentless cultural domination, however the rise of China and Russia could reverse the spread of capitalism as they become increasingly dominant with a revival of Russia’s high culture. The BRIC’s may be perhaps increasing their superpower status through this cultural phenomenon as there has been much media frenzy over the rise of such nations placing them in the public eye.

Whilst these three factors are the most important to superpower status, it could be argued there are other factors which may become increasingly important in the future. For example, it is argued we have already had “peak oil” suggesting a naturally resource rich nation such as Brazil or energy giant such as Russia will have more superpower status in the future as they hold an important commodity. Similarly population is a factor, it could be argued the BRIC’s rise is partly due to its large population combined, it boasts half the worlds population and thus controls half the worlds population. There are issues however for China, Japan and the EU with its population demographic, superpower status particularly in economic terms is reliant on a large, healthy active working population, however these nations face an ageing population which if not tackled could see a decline in their production and thus superpower status. Population, resources and demography may be more important than military, economic or cultural power in the future as we enter into a stage of a multi-polar world. 

Superpowers

A superpower  is a country with the “capacity to project dominating power and influence anywhere in the world” A superpower may also be referred to as a hegemon with supreme power over other countries, hegemony refers to being the dominant force, power, ideology.  Superpower status is not fixed, there is a school of thought that suggests the centre of the world is no longer focused on the US but shifting towards Asia. If history repeats itself it is likely the US will fall or decline in superpower status as did the USSR and British Empire. Superpower can be determined by an array of factors such as

·         Land mass – physical size can indicate power, Russia is the worlds largest country, the larger a country the larger its sphere of control and territory, space means more resources, more people, more expansion opportunities. The future of the Arctic with its oil reserves lies mainly in Russia’s hands. However, with size comes more neighbours, Russia has neighbours that are somewhat polar opposites such as Norway a liberal, capitalist country and China an NIC, communist country, meaning its growth and further influence is perhaps stifled or conflicting and whilst this means more opportunity for Russia to exert its influence over more countries it also means it has more chance of opposition

·         Population size – the larger the population the high influence a country can have globally and the larger workforce or labour it has to build its economy

·         Natural resources – a country with natural resources in abundance can be seen as a superpower as they have the capacity to dictate the distribution of these resources or use them to fuel their economy. When countries withhold or limit supply of their natural resources do they gain influence for example the Middle East have threatened to withhold supplies meaning they gain influence over prices, whilst Russia has threatened to cut Ukraine’s supplies and has actually done so in the past, with the current turbulent situation it is likely to use its powerful resources as a weapon against Ukraine, unfortunately Ukraine is a major transit nation for the pipelines leading to Europe.

·         Economic power – the higher gdp and more wealth a country has the more it can invest in new technologies which can make it a power in leading science and technology, the more money it can lend to other countries which can come with conditions and thus influence and the high standard of living a country has, plus more money means more precedence on the worlds stage, it can give a country the worlds most powerful currency i.e the dollar. Unfortunately wealth often means power and a voice.

·         Military power – the more military the more ability to defend and protect and attack another country. The UN tries to dilute military power and has 5 permanent members China, USA, UK, Russia and France, all those who possessed nuclear weapons in the 70’s. The UN approves military action in extreme situations

·         History – historical superpower status such as the British Empire has left lasting legacy of superpower status, despite nearly all countries gaining independence the mark of the British is still upon other countries for example English is one of the most commonly spoken languages in the world. Many former colonies are still main exporting partners with the UK meaning the UK have influence over trade. However, many superpowers such as the USA did not have an extensive colonial legacy and do not have an extensive history yet are considered a superpower

·         Dominant belief system – superpower status can also come in the form of dominant beliefs for example the US is predominantly a Christian country with much influence over the rest of the world through missionaries influencing world religion. Religion is not the only form of dominant belief, capitalism is wide spread and hegemon in the world, capitalism and communism are a dichotomy; therefore there are conflicting regions of the world in which each belief system is dominant. Russia, during Soviet Union years looked to spread the belief in communism to the East and South easterly however capitalism was promoted by the worlds largest superpower the US and with help from aid and investment was spread into South Korea and Japan which stifled the expansion of communism

Old superpowers

The world has changed dramatically in the last 70 years with the fall of the British Empire, collapse of communism and subsequent break up of the USSR. Previously the concept of superpower status regarded the British Empire, USA and the Soviet Union, however after these world changing incidents, superpower status has become more wide spread and more ambiguous. For instance, the emergence of the Asian Tigers has led many writers to assume these countries will be economically worthy of superpower status, whilst the rise of the BRIC countries in terms of trade and establishment on the world stage has created uncertainty over who are today’s superpowers. Whilst the UK may still be considered an influential country it is perhaps declining in superpower status as other countries begin to rise in global influence. The world is likely to change and progress substantially in the next 70 years also, as the BRIC’s, MINT’s (Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria, Turkey) and various other countries establish their place globally in their own rights.

The British Empire was an imperialist system, the USA is a capitalist system and the USSR was a communist system. In the Cold War era 1945-90 the world was bi-polar with two major superpowers The USA and USSR. The USSR created a strong core by invading or allying itself with its surrounding countries (Mackinder Heartland theory).

The USA has allies in the form of Western Europe through NATO, Japan and South Korea through military and investment ties, Africa and Asian countries through military and aid. The USSR had allies with Eastern Europe, other socialist states such as Cuba and Africa and Asian countries through military particularly Somalia.

They both had strong militaries and intelligence agencies the CIA (US) and KGB (USSR), both countries had nuclear weapons as a threat. The US grew its cultural influence through popular culture via film, tv, music conveying the American Dream and idealistic view of capitalism, a lack of censorship meant negative views of America could be transmitted however America was promoting a free country and freedom of the press. The USSR tried to sell itself as a country of high culture such as ballet, music and art, Russian ballet is renowned in the world. There was tight censorship allowing no criticism.

The Cold War did not entail military action between the two superpowers but was more of an ideological battle, however various events created moments of high tension such as the Vietnam war, Korean war, Berlin wall, Cuban missile crisis.

Other forms of superpowers:

Organisations and economic groupings can also be considered Superpowers despite the fact they are not single countries. For example OPEC may be the leading superpower in terms of natural resources such as oil however with the expansion of Russian energy and new technologies such as shale gas, this influence and power may be declining. The UN is the global superpower in a sense that it often has access to many countries in the world, it is used to neutralise military power from its 5 permanent member states and has control and responsibility for millions of refugees in a sense its population is large. The EU can be considered a superpower as with 27 members it is the largest economic grouping and takes a substantial portion of the worlds global GDP, it has influence over its members with common laws, a supposedly common currency and free trade. Other forms of superpower could be considered in modern day world to be TNC’s, many TNC’s have more power and influence than many LEDC’s, they possess the power to locate where they choose and leave when they choose, they possess huge amounts of wealth and are often involved in the arms trade meaning their influence is not isolated to economics. TNC’s have also shown the ability to dictate which countries develop into emerging superpowers and which ones stay as inferior, for example TNC’s have chosen or been tempted by governments to invest in Asian countries and neglected Africa, meaning money, manufacturing, TNC status have all helped boost Asian countries whilst Africa has lost out.

Neo-colonialism refers to the indirect control from former empires on former colonies, neo-colonialism is argued to keep countries in a state of dependency through TNC’s and wage labour, natural resource extraction and cash crop farming, through cultural imperialism and through aid which causes a country to become in debted to the giving country. Another way of keeping a country inferior is the patenting of technology and medical advances which incur a royalty fee to use, this means much technology is unavailable to poor countries stunting their growth and keeping them underdeveloped.

Evaluate the schemes being used to secure future water supplies?

As the worlds population reaches the 7 billion mark, the need to secure water supplies grows in equal measure. 1.4 billion people lack clean water already so projects to sustain water supplies are incredibly imperative in order to sustain life on earth. Many projects are tackling this issue such as Water aid in Mali and Clear Water in Australia however despite there being a multitude of projects their success could be debated.

The Himalayas have been experiencing water shortages due to various factors such as pollution in China’s Yangtze River and India’s swelling population. In Nepal, poverty plays a big part in providing water security, a non-governmental organisation called SWASTHA (strengthening water, air, sanitation and hygiene treasuring health) has been implemented by Practical Action. Using advancements in technology they aim to improve water quality, availability and provide sustainable methods of irrigation. A benefit of using technology such as solar powered water pumps to increase access to water is that it does not harm the local environment as it uses natural sun energy rather than large dams and allows a fairly quick fix. However it could be argued this is not appropriate technology for Nepal’s poorest as they will not be able to fund maintenance or replacement panels and must be dependent on the intermittent sun, instead of gaining control over their own water security they are dependent on Practical Action to provide these panels. Despite this flaw of one element of the project it must be remembered that SWASHTHA is also teaching effective irrigation techniques to farmers to enable them to not only control their use of water and protect them from wastage but also increase their food security as they can grow their own crops.

Across from Nepal, Pakistan is situated, facing increasingly worse water scarcity. The government has created the WAPDA (Water and Power Development Authority) scheme to store and replenish water supplies by investing in extensive dams. WAPDA was created in 1959 to undertake the task of planning schemes for irrigation and water development and has since built various dams including the Diamer-Bhasha on the River Indus. The dam does not only store 10km3 acres of water but generates 4,500 megawatts of electricity for Pakistan helping to aid development in industry. WAPDA plans to make the dam a tourist spot as well to further boost economic turnover however the cost of the construction will reach over $20million and take a further 12 years to complete. This scheme is a long term project and not a fast solution for Pakistans water security suggesting it’s benefits will not be reaped anytime soon. As well as the cost, the scheme has had to resettle thousands of residents whilst building work takes place, uprooting and disrupting livelihoods and homes. Despite the schemes overwhelming negative outcomes there are potential benefits such as the creation of 15,000 jobs and the ability to secure large quantities or water and store for devised and gradual use to sustain Pakistans water.

These are two examples of both bottom up and top down projects that aim to secure future water by acting now. The benefits of a bottom up such as Practical Action is it works with communities and educates safe and sustained water management to produce generations of people who will use their water effectively and have access to it. Bottom up projects are usually controversial as they tend to overlook residents as highlighted by WAPDA’s resettlements, however they have the power of money to secure large amounts of water. When it comes to water security there is no simple solution to protecting future supplies but as scarcity increases more schemes will have to take place perhaps leaving the door open for other issues such as conflict, strain and disruption as the water war continues. 

Explain the threats that exist towards the future water supply in the Himilaya’s.

Whilst water may be the core necessity of life and many people argue should be available for all, this is not the case, water is becoming a threatened commodity due to both physical and human impacts. As climate change looms and industrialisation increases flooded rivers, pollution and water scarcity will ensue. Not only will physical resources of water diminish but access to water in poverty stricken countries could create economic scarcity whereby the water supply is there it just cannot be attained due to a lack of money. The Himalayan countries such as China, Bangladesh, India and Pakistan are facing continues threats to their future water supply often as a result of each other.

The Ganges flows through India but ends in Pakistan, however along the way Indian companies have diverted large amounts of water into irrigation systems and dams have been placed so Bangladesh is deprived of its natural amount of water from the Ganges. This creates the threat of not just a lack of water in the future for Bangladesh but also a lack of food security as fishing cannot take place if water levels are too low and salinisation may occur, destroying habitats for marine life. Not only does India divert water from the Ganges it also pollutes by distributing waste from industries into the flow near Bangladesh. This creates an even large threat for Bangladesh as they will be at risk from undrinkable, contaminated water. Despite an agreement in 1990 to share the Ganges, India maintains power over its supply, leaving Bangladesh at the mercy of India.

In 1962 China and India fought over Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh on their neighbouring borders due to territorial disputes but also water conflict as Aksai Chin holds one of the major sources of water for the Hotan county, the river Karakash. Forces clashed after China seized Aksai chin however despite many peace treaties signed there continues to be conflict. In 2012 China issued passport stamps with Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh included leading to the Indian defence minister claiming China was its biggest threat when it comes to territory. If China maintains hold of these two areas India will face water shortages without access to Karakash and the Tarim River Basin, a future threat for both China and India is perhaps not their water sources but each other.

Many threats come in the form of human conflict in the Himalayas however there are physical threats such as climate change that can pose a risk. The Himalaya’s is home to the largest mountain in the world, snow topped Mount Everest and many others, as climate change warms the temperature there is a threat that snow cover may melt and as 70% of freshwater is kept in these snow covers, the surrounding Countries could lose or contaminate this water if it begins to melt and flood. The water could become contaminated as it flows through sewages meaning it is lost forever. Another physical threat is that of India’s monsoon period, the heavy rainfall can cause flooding and therefore sewage leakages again infecting the water supplies. The Himalayan threats are present from many angles suggesting it’s water security is incredibly in danger.

China has established a scheme to aid its water supply in the future called the South to North Transfer, aiming to join the rivers Yangtze, Yellow and Huai to channel water from the plentiful North to the in need South. However this has posed a new threat in trying to counteract another, the Yellow River is already at undrinkable levels of pollution due to industrial and domestic waste, if the rivers are channelled to combine this could worsen the water quality in the Yangtze River, therefore diminishing a further resource.

Water is increasingly under threat; human factors have a major role in not only creating these dangers but trying to prevent them. Various projects have been created in order to protect the Himalaya’s from these risks however as with China’s South to North transfer, these projects are sometimes threats in themselves.

How likely does it seem the Millenium Development Goals will be met in 2015? Justify your reasons.

The  8 MDG’s were proposed in 2000 at the start of the new millennium to create an improved world free from poverty, inequality and disease, however despite this idealism this task was a global challenge, as 183 countries signed up the goals very few have or will achieve more than 2 by 2015. However, whilst there is much scepticism surrounding the goals and their achievability, many countries have made strong advancements towards the goals and as a result progressed their development. Many schemes both governmental and local have helped towards achieving the goals yet with 1.93 years left on the clock, completion seems doubtful.

There is much disparity between countries when it comes to their achievements regarding the MDG’s, for example whilst Venezuela has made rapid achievement, Haiti is lagging far behind. The main cause of this disparity is the different starting points from which countries began their goals, for example Haiti in 2000 was one of the worlds poorest countries whereas Venezuela under Chavez regime began a socialist approach where communal support was key, suggesting that the MDG’s may have been easier for some countries to begin with. Venezuela is on task with all of the goals, it has in fact been declared illiteracy free with regards to goal 2 of Universal primary education and has reduced its percentage of people living in absolute poverty by 20%, it also has more women in higher education than men suggesting a large achievement in empowering women. Despite many challenges such as sex and drug trafficking hindering achievements and recent political turbulence resulting in violent protests,  for eradication of HIV/AIDS and the collapse of the health care system, Venezuela is one of the leading countries in the developing world for completing its goals by 2015.

However Haiti is in a different situation, the goals for an impoverished country such as Haiti are monumentous and perhaps even impossible. For example, Haiti only has 1.3 hospital beds per thousand population, meaning improving maternal health is a great challenge, therefore many women have home births which has a high risk of both infant mortality and death in childbirth. Haiti’s lack of medical supplies and hospital beds has a negative multiplier effect on the other goals, for example a lack of healthcare in childbirth means increased infant mortality, increased disease or infection which may keep women out of work thus reducing empowerment and equality for women and increasing poverty. Haiti has experienced many challenges in the last 14 years that have truly hindered its chances at meeting the goals, for example the 2010 earthquake devastated much infrastructure, increased disease and dissipated population leaving behind a legacy of underdevelopment rather than progression towards the goals. It seems very unlikely Haiti will meet the goals by 2015 and is perhaps on par with African nations rather than Latin American nations in meeting the goals.

There are a multitude of challenges posing countries that are working towards the MDG’s, one which is not involved with the goals is that of corruption. Corruption and a lack of human rights can prevent development for many countries, Haiti has been ranks among the most corrupt nations in the world and Venezuela has over 400,000 children working as sex or labour slaves. Corruption and malpractice is so far rooted in many developing nations that it is difficult to overcome regardless of targets such as the MDG’s set by the UN. Without a goal focusing on corruption, human rights or shadow economies there is less incentive for countries to acknowledge these issues and move past them, therefore, as these issues can severely hinder other aspects of development such as poverty or gender equality, it seems unlikely many developing nations will be able to meet their goals by 2015 as they are facing challenges outside the realm of the 8 goals.

The MDG’s have produced many improvements for developing nations helping towards a better quality of life for many people and reducing world poverty, however the very concept of reducing world poverty is not a simple quick fix, poverty is caused by so many aspects that eradicating it within 15 years seems incredibly naïve. Many of the goals such as gender equality are stunted by religious and governmental boundaries such as within Islamic nations and goals such as the environmental sustainability are not priorities for many nations that face extreme poverty and infant mortality. Despite the goals being applied to 183 countries, it seems unlikely one nation will achieve all 8 goals by 2015 or even close to that, as many countries are unlikely to reach their development destination within 15 years after hundreds of years of underdevelopment and poverty. How can you possibly fix deep rooted problems that have evolved over hundreds of years within 15?

Examine barriers that exists against the expansion of trade in some countries

Trade has been a global economic drive for centuries, it has been argued as a crucial component in development and vital to a countries economy. Trade is the action of supplying a demand, exchanging something, often money, for a good or service. Influential Neo-liberal policies such as that of Thatcher and Reagan have proposed that free trade globally would propel many developing nations into development and provide further wealth for MEDC’s, however there are many barriers to trade that exist within countries despite the World Trade Organisations promotion of the free market and abolition or reduction in tariffs, quotas and subsidies.

Whilst trade is a human process, it could be argued there are physical barriers that restrict the expansion of trade. For example geographical barriers such as a country being landlocked can hinder access to trade portals and trade routes. Many nations such as the Democratic Republic of Congo are landlocked, meaning they have no access to the sea or a port, ports are thriving locations for trade and shipments of exports and imports, without a port accessibility to countries worldwide is reduced. For instance, exports must travel through transit countries to reach the coast before they can be exported to MEDC’s, this can incur costs and may have the potentiality for theft as many nations in Africa do not have regulations or adequate infrastructure. Furthermore, being isolated such as Madagascar or even Britain means reliance on ports and shipping channels in order to trade, without the benefits of trade routes via transport over land this may create a barrier to trade as a countries means to trade and access to trade routes is reduced. Being a landlocked nation or an island may present a physical barrier to global trade and therefore prevent the expansion of trade.

Neo-liberals argue the main hindrance to trade and thus development is the implementation of tariffs on imports and exports, quotas and subsidies. Tariffs create unnecessary and costly barriers to the expansion of trade, African nations for example have been suggested as “walling themselves off” from the advantages of global trade by introducing such tariffs. It could be argued in a globalised and interconnected world, subsidies within one country may present a barrier to trade within another, this is the case for Mali. Mali is located in Western Africa and is heavily dependent on the production of cotton crops, 3 million Malians are reliant on profits from cotton crops to survive. However, the US is the worlds largest cotton producer and one of the wealthiest nations in the world, this means the government can afford to give subsidies of up to $4bn per year to cotton farmers which in turn allows them to drive down cotton prices. US subsidies has depressed global cotton prices which has had an adverse effect on Malian growers, their profits from cotton no longer exceed their production costs placing them in poverty and stunting the national economy. US dominance in the global cotton market has had a negative impact on trade profits for Mali, reducing the opportunity to expand trade as it is not financially viable with current cotton prices so low.

A further barrier to the expansion of trade it could be argued is political regime. Whilst capitalism advocates free trade and emphasises the importance of competition, communism can act as a barrier to trade. Communist governments set prices on all commodities within a nation, therefore prices are often lower than that of the global market to encourage equality within the communist country, however this means communist countries cannot trade globally as their prices do not reflect the global market. Communist regimes also often keep themselves isolated from global trade as it is seen as a capitalist notion for the individual rather than the collective, this creates an ideological and political barrier to the expansion of trade as many communist countries refuse to trade globally, therefore trade is only within the communist nation and with prices fixed and competition eliminated there is no economic gain. As governments set tariffs, subsidies, prices and have power over their population, a communist regime may be a challenging barrier to the expansion of trade with no incentive to enter into the global trade system.

It could be argued trade is a part of global development and increasingly globalisation, trade between countries establishes not only a relationship but economic prospects. Trade has been behind Britain’s industrialisation and China’s growing dominance, however despite increasing development, rapid growth of NIC’s and LEDC’s beginning to emerge into secondary sector industry there are still preventative barriers hindering the expansion of trade. Whether it be physical, economic or political there are still many boundaries to the globalisation of trade

East Africa Geog section B Assess the importance of IGO's in development.

Assess the contribution of IGO’s in addressing development.

IGO’s are intergovernmental organisations such as the EU, NATO and the UN. They each have important roles in helping countries within them develop for example the UN’s mission is to create peace between members, intervene in times of war and thus in diffusing conflict aid development. Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda are also part of an IGO, the East African Community, established in 1967 however collapsed during Idi Amin’s rule in Uganda, however it was “revived” in 2000. One of the best tested models of development is a trade bloc such as the EAC which is similar to the superpower EU. IGO’s such as the EAC are crucial for development and the UN having established in 2000 the Millennium Development Goals however there are flaws with each organisation, particularly given the turbulent conflicts which occur in the East African Region and the deep divisions in ideology.

The EAC addresses one of the main development issues within this region and somewhat unique to this region, the diverse ethnicities that breed conflicts. Ethnic conflict is identity conflict which due to colonial arbitrary borders that forged nations out of ethnic divisions have erupted in armed conflict and ethnic cleansing, damaging populations and infrastructure such as the 1993 Rwandan genocide. The EAC has sought to create one identity to heal the ethnic fissures, for example Kenyans, Tanzanian’s and Ugandan’s can see each other as alike under the new identity of East African Community. It also allows the free movement of people between borders like the EU which means the region can move away from its colonial past into a collaborative region, this also creates geographical mobility a key component of Rostow’s pre-conditions of take off stage to development.

The IGO also addresses economic issues such as trade having implemented the LAPSSET project which aims to connect the region better together and to maritime and international markets via a 32 berth port and international airports, develop the lucrative tourism industry and thus move away from cash crops and develop oil to supply a domestic supply of energy, a particularly important commodity to have as oil becomes finite. It is projected to increase annual growth for Kenya of 10% however the benefits of this may not be felt by all member states. There are significantly weaker economies amongst stronger as figure 12 highlights, suggesting members may not be equal or reap equal benefits.

However it could be argued this may spread HIV as people move freely, considering the already high rates of 6.3 and 6.5 as figure 3 shows this could further exacerbate this epidemic or as the Kenyan government declared a “national disaster”. There are also concerns over the stability of the organisation, for example it collapsed in 1971 due to conflicting ideology between member states, as each nation has different priorities, ethnicities and religions for example Sudan adheres to Sharia Law and wishes to be part of the EAC this could cause conflict with predominantly Christian Kenya. Members worry of sovereignty, this is perhaps similar to the current situation in the EU in which some member states feel their autonomy is compromised by being a member. The LAPSSET project is costing $30billion and will take years to accomplish, whilst it is also environmentally damaging on precious mangroves which are a vital sea defence against erosion and tsunami’s. Suggesting some flaws with this IGO.

A perhaps more humanitarian oriented IGO is that of the UN, particularly due to its MDG’s. The MDG’s have caused much developmental progress worldwide, for example Venezuela has been declared illiteracy free and administers 32 million doses of antiretroviral drugs to prevent AIDs. However, whilst Uganda is on track to halve the proportion of people without safe drinking water and achieve gender parity (figure4), Kenya and Tanzania are “lagging amid” Ban-ki Moon. It is however an excellent initiative for development as it focuses on issues of gender and poverty rather than just trade. Establishing gender parity means more economically active and educated populations leading to development, whilst it also helps in conflict zones for example during the Rwandan Civil war the UN deployed military troops to keep civilians safe. However, whilst the MDG’s have and perhaps will continue to help social development they can be argued as a form of Western imperialism, imposing western ideas upon developing countries. For example, gender parity albeit essential goes against many Islamic cultures, prevalent in East Africa suggesting in order to develop cultures must be displaced. Similarly it could be argued the MDG’s are somewhat naïve in their assumptions countries, as View 4 explains, that have been disrupted by colonialism, foreign aid, geography and climate could possibly eradicate hunger, create gender parity, get access to clean water in a mere 15 years. Development for East Africa and many LEDC’s is not a quick process, they are met with challenges that the Western world, particularly Britain never faced, such as tectonic hazards and slavery.

Both IGO’s are important for development and have to led to genuine progress, Uganda has begun to reverse the spread of AID’s, Kenya has had increased attraction from superpower China in its LAPSSET project and opened up trade links however IGO’s also may cause friction, as perhaps they suggest cultural homogeneity is the path to development however the Asian Tigers have shown culture and development do not need to be mutually exclusive, and perhaps may not be stable for instance the EAC may collapse again. The UN has unequivocally provided much assistance to East Africa however it is perhaps applying a Western measuring rod to measure development rather than addressing other challenges Africa faces, and its miniscule time frame of 15 years  means its goals are arguably impossible to achieve. 

Example of a Geography Edexcel Unit 4 report

1.       Introduction

Tectonic hazards can be defined as natural events, seismic or volcanic, which potentially pose a threat to human life and property (Nagle). Tectonic hazards are distributed around the world, appearing at divergent, convergent, collision and transform boundaries with some intraplate or hotspot. Therefore the majority of earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunami’s may pose a threat to human life and property at some point, particularly as populations grow alongside urban expansion.

 A natural hazard is not necessarily a natural disaster, for example The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is away from human settlements and does not pose a risk. The Degg model (Figure 1.) highlights that a hazard only becomes a disaster that needs management when it comes into contact with vulnerable populations.

MODEL GOES HERE
	Figue 1.

 

Therefore, there is a need, or lack thereof, for a range of management strategies implemented at international, national and local levels by a multitude of key players such as Governments, NGO’s and the scientific community (USIDR). There are three core management strategies “Do Nothing, Adjust, Leave”. Do Nothing is an appropriate strategy in the case of the Mid Atlantic Ridge. Adjustment is the term for mitigation schemes such as seismic buildings, whilst Leave refers to temporary or permanent evacuation or abandonment of risk areas, as in the case of Montserrat in 1995. The capacity to implement management schemes is dependent on various factors such as economic development, government commitment and frequency of hazards.

Management is a multi-pronged approach that is arguably interconnected, occurring before, during and after a hazardous event. The traditional model in Figure 2. shows there is a cyclical and interconnected nature to effective management. This will provide a framework for the report, divided into subsections illustrating contrasting, different strategies.

	Figue 2.

 

Case studies in the report illustrate management schemes before, during and after. The oldest, however classic example, was the 1995 Kobe earthquake which illustrated long term management of over 20 years whilst the 1995 Soufriere Hills eruption highlighted an LEDC with advanced prediction methods and a “leave” strategy. The 2004 Indonesian tsunami was an example of poor before management yet enhanced mitigation in the aftermath whilst the 2005 Kashmir earthquake similarly illustrates the effect of a lack of prevention in terms of seismic buildings. The 2010 Eyjafjallajökull volcanic eruption was used to highlight fully domestic responses whilst the 2010 Haiti earthquake was an example of external, international relief efforts. The Tohoku 2011 earthquake is an excellent example of secondary hazards in the form of a tsunami and Japanese mitigation techniques, whilst the contrasting 2013 Solomon Islands tsunami illustrated inadequate infrastructure. Contemporary examples such as the 2013 Pakistan earthquake exhibited a lack of prediction whilst the 2014 Chile earthquake highlights the capacity of an LEDC to have stringent seismic codes, the 2014 Mount Sinabung eruption highlights management during as the activity is ongoing.

The Park model (figure 3.) shows deterioration occurs during a hazard yet it highlights the chance for subsequent improvement after. The Park Model shows the point at which mitigation techniques can be applied for improvement to increase a county’s capacity to cope. However, improvement may not be available or achievable for all nations, namely Haiti who are still in the deterioration stage. Management strategies need to be effectively implemented and enforced to lead to progression.

	Figue 3.

 

2.       Methodology

To facilitate this report a wide breadth of sources were used. Internet websites such as up to date, journalistic BBC News and the Guardian were used for contemporary case studies. However, these may have included some bias so were used in conjunction with Medicines Sans Frontier.org, USGS and livescience to eliminate personal opinion bias. When researching management schemes using key player websites was effective as they were actively part of the response. Text books including Dunn et al were used for models whilst reliable academic resources such as Geography Review, Geofactsheet 30 and Geofile 133 contributed to research. However, government websites were not used due to potential bias, dishonesty or political motives. Quantitative and qualitative sources were used simultaneously to provide objective and in depth valid data. A range of data was used for comparability for example whilst an unreliable blog reported the death toll of the Tohoku Earthquake in 2011 as 18,000, Geography Review, a more reliable source, reported 16,000. Amongst written sources documentaries such as Ian Stewarts “Top 10” and BBC horizon “Japan Earthquake” were used to collate an extensive range of sources to eliminate bias and discrepancies.

3.             Analysis

3.1         Before

Management strategies are crucial before the disaster has occurred, to minimise the economic and human losses. However, governments and the scientific community hold most responsibility in management before an event (ISPUB).

3.1.1          Risk Assessment

Risk assessments, identifying areas and people that may be at risk of a disaster before a disaster occurs, are essential. The Hyogo Framework (a UN global blueprint for disaster risk reduction) suggests “Governments must know the risks they face in order to supply effective reduction strategies”.

i.                     Earthquake and Tsunami Risk Assessment
This involves assessing durability and safety of structures, vulnerable populations such as elderly or disabled, economic structure and capacity to cope. For example Japan carried out a risk assessment on the Fukushima Daiichi  nuclear plant in 2007 and concluded there was a 10% risk of a tsunami breaching the 6 metre wall however the 2011 tsunami caused by the earthquake was 14 metres high (Geography Review) suggesting risk assessments cannot predict the severity of an earthquake or tsunami.

ii.                   Volcanic Eruption Risk Assessment
In addition, volcano risk assessment includes devising an exclusion zone and the proximity of airports as volcanic ash can severely disrupt flights, as in the case of 195,000 flights during the 2010 Eyjafjallajokull eruption. Once risk assessment is completed management strategies aimed at modifying the event and the vulnerability can be implemented.

3.1.2          Prediction

Prediction is a strategy that despite involving costly, technical equipment and ultimately there is an inability to fully predict an earthquake or eruption, provides a chance for governments to foresee an event; it is crucial for providing early warnings that save lives. There is a multitude of prediction methods. For example Japan has an extensive network of seismometers called the JMA (Japanese Meteorological Agency) which monitor primary and secondary waves which helped predict the Tohoku earthquake (Top 10). Whereas Pakistan, due to finance and the presence of the Taliban, has little prediction or monitoring, which contributed to the high death toll of 350 in the 2013 earthquake, as the area around the Chaman fault is too dangerous for scientists to monitor due to the terrorist situation at present (livescience).  A lack of prediction means events are completely unprecedented therefore rescue efforts will be slower, prediction equates time which is crucial with a tectonic hazard.

i.                     Prediction Methods
A historic strategy is monitoring animal behaviour which is mainly used in LEDC’s such as Pakistan, as reliance on agriculture means more awareness of anomalous behaviour, which can signify tremors as animals can feel minor foreshocks.
Also, technical strategies used by Montserrat Volcano Observatory such as measuring increased levels of sulphur dioxide and satellite images to monitor bulges in a volcano’s sides. Recently prediction has incorporated prediction of tsunami’s with the Pacific and Indian Ocean Tsunami warning systems, in response to the 2004 Indonesian tsunami, which monitor changes in pressure on the sea bed and transmit predictions via satellites. However these facilities can produce false predictions, which are met with hostility from local residents, for example in 2007 angry residents disabled a tsunami early warning system in the Indonesian region due to it sending out false warnings on false predictions causing evacuation. (theguardian)

ii.                   Early Warnings
Iceland has an effective early warning system text service, as when Eyjafjallajokull showed high gas levels in 2010, they were able to send out a text 30 minutes prior to the eruption giving individuals time to prepare. In contrast sirens were used to warn of further eruptions from Mount Sinabung in 2014 (USGS). It has been estimated that over 3 million lives have been saved due to early warning systems in the last 40 years (geography review). 

3.1.3          Prevention

Whilst it is impossible to prevent an earthquake or volcanic eruption it is possible to prevent impacts

i.                     Seismic Codes. “Earthquakes don’t kill people, buildings do” (Geofactsheet 133), the vast majority of injuries, death and economic losses come from the collapsing of buildings. Japan have invested in seismic codes as a before strategy whose success was exemplified in Kobe. The majority of Japan’s buildings prior to the Kobe earthquake in 1995 were built to “kyu-tiashin” standards which could withstand some intensity however stronger codes were introduced called “shin-tiashin”, during the earthquake only 0.3% of shin-tiashin buildings suffered damage whilst 8.4% of kyu-tiashin collapsed or were damaged (japanpropertycentral). In contrast in LEDC the Solomon Islands in 2013, many buildings were made out of mud brick due to not implementing this strategy, which collapsed due to the shaking, the subsequent tsunami washed the entire Nela village away (BBC news). This highlights the need for stringent, enforced and up to date seismic building codes.

ii.                   Exclusion Zones
A prevention strategy for volcanic eruptions is that of exclusion zones, this takes the “Leave” strategy as a temporary or in the case of Montserrat, permanent exclusion zone is set up around the volcano (Geography review). This physically prevents loss of life however displaces individuals and disrupts livelihoods. The Southern half of the island is inaccessible to prevent deaths in the event of a further eruption. This shows the ability of an LEDC to implement prevention strategies, however this could be due to the island being a British colony as 4000 residents were able to move out of the exclusion zone to safety in Britain (theguardian)

iii.                  Evacuation
 Often evacuation is haphazard (hphighcourt) or mismanaged, for example Mount Sinabung erupted in September 2013, the government evacuated the area temporarily and allowed 14,000 residents back home within 1 month. However, the volcano erupted again in January 2014 thus people had to be evacuated again or were trapped in their homes by the ash cloud (bbcnews). In contrast, before the earthquake in L’aquila in 2009 the government, due to predictions, organised an evacuation, however this was abandoned. Evacuation is crucial yet often poorly managed.

Prevention is an effective way of removing or reducing the risk however exclusion zones means the displacement of residents and many LEDC’s cannot afford seismic buildings or their priorities may be to tackle a day to day issue of poverty, however Chile has stringent seismic codes which are strictly enforced.

3.2         During

Once a tectonic hazard has occurred, there are different forms of management strategies for which success is dependent on quick mobilisation. During a disaster, key players are most important; these can be split into domestic such as government and international such as NGO’s.  Relief ranges from locals with little machinery responding first to those trapped under rubble which was the case in Kashmir in 2005, to military intervention with large machines to lift rubble used in Chile 2014. Relief strategies include rescuing survivors, creating temporary camps for homeless, putting out secondary hazards of fires, and providing medicines, food and water.

3.2.1          Domestic strategy

Domestic strategies are relief efforts that come from the government and bodies within the country. The ability to deal with a disaster domestically is rare, however Iceland’s responses to the Eyjafjallajokull earthquake in 2010 was entirely domestic (geotalk). Part of the strategy from the government was to mobilise emergency teams to channel lava by bulldozing a main road, this prevented lava from reaching nearby villages. Iceland is an MEDC and therefore had the financial capacity to fund purely domestic emergency aid and strategies.

3.2.1.1 Key Players
Key players in domestic responses are predominantly governments. For example, in the recent April 2014 Chile earthquake, President Bachelet mobilised military teams to provide man power to physically rescue people and keep order and prevent looting in a time of panic as security is often at risk (bbc news). The Japanese government sought to deal with the 9.0 Tohoku earthquake domestically and thus refused much foreign aid. A Chinese naval ship equipped with medical supplies was refused whilst the US providing coolant to the Fukushima nuclear plant was also refused (ENENEWS). The sheer magnitude meant domestic responses were limited and the refusal of foreign aid may have hindered the relief stage.

 A contrasting key player is that of the individual, it is their responsibility to follow plans and seek personal safety. However, also during the Tohoku earthquake only 58% of residents in Miyagi sought higher ground (livescience), this meant many people were killed by the secondary hazard due to failure to follow information in place. In the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, early relief was largely in the hands of untrained, unequipped local people. This highlights that both large governments and individuals are part of the domestic response during a hazard as they are the first to respond.

3.2.2          International strategies

In contrast to domestic strategies are international strategies and humanitarian which aim to supply emergency teams and money. International responses come in the form of international aid from other countries for example Britain gave $10million towards relief efforts in Haiti after the 2010 earthquake. Other strategies are charities such as Medicine’s Sans Frontier’s (MSF) and the Red Cross who entered within 36 hours (bbcnews) and individual funding such as the Hope for Haiti campaign and song which alone raised $58 million (mtv.com). Due to Haiti’s poor governance, poverty and corruption there was a lack of domestic aid and responses which caused such an influx of foreign aid and foreign NGO’s. The international aid provided supplies, temporary camps and large amounts of monetary aid to respond to the disaster.
3.2.2.1 Key players
Key players for an international response are governments as they provide bilateral emergency aid but the role of NGO’s and the media is highly important. MSF provided its largest humanitarian response to the Haiti earthquake. NGO’s are particularly important because they can ignore political and territorial disputes and religious ideology (Moore et al). However, during the Kashmir earthquake in 2005, local residents who are Muslim protested against female relief workers and male workers working with female locals due to their beliefs. This suggests that foreign NGO’s cannot compete with domestic responses as they do not know the local needs and customs and may supply inappropriate aid. NGO’s were criticised for marginalising Haitian NGO’s (thenation) and quickly creating camps that consequently created a tertiary hazard of a cholera epidemic, this may mean Haiti may not reach the point of improvement on the Park Model (figure 3.). This could suggest international aid is not always the best strategy particularly as refugee camps create further hazards, however the money accumulated by international funds is unmatched by domestic.

Similarly, the role of the international media is beneficial. The media and social networking sites in recent years have provided instantaneous updates on natural disasters which in turn have prompted large campaigns such as “Pray for Japan” and “Hope for Haiti” from around the globe. The internet and media has facilitated more international involvement in relief phase strategies which has contributed to funding, whilst NGO’s provide quick, humanitarian assistance as part of their strategy to manage the immediate effects of a hazard.

3.3   After

As the Park model shows (Figure 3.) management after a disaster is essential for returning back to normality but also offers a chance for improvement. The Hyogo Framework stresses the need for mitigation in this stage and incorporating disaster risk reduction into development.  

3.3.1          Rehabilitation

Rehabilitation is a post disaster stage of management, it encompasses strategies to reinstate lifelines such as water whilst supporting communities and individuals recover from trauma.  

i.                     Temporary reconstruction

After the 2014 Mount Sinabung eruption five halls, normally used for traditional cultural ceremonies were converted into shelters with at least 1,500 being temporarily housed (bbcnews).. During the Haiti earthquake NGO’s began setting up camps immediately, which instead of being temporary are still in use now (publicintegrity). Temporary reconstruction helps rebuild lifelines yet in LEDC’s it often becomes semi-permanent thus they remain in deterioration (figure.3).

i.                     Psychosocial support
Psychosocial support helps individuals and communities to heal the psychological wounds. However, despite much of Kobe having been completely restored physically, many communities have not. Despite being 18 years on from the disaster, much psychological and community damage has not been adequately repaired suggesting the need for psychosocial support (theguardian).

However, psychosocial support has been an effective strategy after the eruption of Eyjafjallajokull in 2010. The Icealandic Red Cross, provided counselling particularly for traumatised children and activated a 24 hour hotline for individuals to seek psychological support (reliefweb). It can change passive victims into active survivors (ifrc.org).

3.3.2          Reconstruction

Reconstruction is the stage in which permanent changes are introduced. It is at this pivotal point that governments can implement mitigation strategies. There is a striking contrast between the reconstruction in MEDC’s and LEDC’s as reconstruction relies upon resources, funding and government commitment.

i.                    Rebuilding
Rebuilding is only necessary for the adjust strategy not permanent leave as in Montserrat. Strategies include rebuilding physical infrastructure, which has been successful in Kobe after the 1995 earthquake, the restoration of lifelines, railways, roads and harbours were focused on, and all restored to their previous states within three years (chinaup.com). However Kobe has been at a stagnant 80% recovery since the earthquake, this translates as all physical infrastructure has been rebuilt yet victims livelihoods have not. The Japanese government funded $58billion towards reconstruction.  Also this wide-scale rebuilding inevitably took time to accomplish, and in 2003, many projects were still in the construction stages.

In contrast rebuilding after the 2013 Solomon Islands tsunami has been successful, NGO Anglican Overseas has provided over 500 solar panels in the reconstruction of villages to provide sustainable energy as electricity was compromised in the disaster. This could reflect Park’s model (figure.3) as the reconstruction strategy here has provided improvements above former normality and contributed to MDG 7 in providing sustainable energy.  Reconstruction can help improve societies above normality, however it is often a long time before this is completed or recognisable.

3.3.3          Mitigation

Mitigation is both part of the Before and After stage. This involves aspects such as insurance, The benefit of using mitigation strategies after a disaster is strategies can be based on the downfalls of the most recent response to provide a more prepared nation with a greater capacity to cope.

i.                     Seismic building and land use zoning can be implemented in this stage.  For example LEDC Chile, due to earthquakes from the 1960’s to 2013 has used reconstruction as a stage for mitigation and has enforced, stringent building codes which helped reduce the impacts of the 2014 earthquake (nbcnews.com). However, LDC Haiti has struggled to rebuild with mitigation in mind. Much of Haiti’s rebuilding has been the construction of makeshift, shanty towns using tarpaulin supplied during the rehabilitation phase. Little permanent reconstruction has occurred and this type of infrastructure is the most vulnerable to future hazards.

ii.                   Mortuary sites

Tectonic hazards often produce large death tolls for example the Haiti earthquake 2010 accrued over 316,000 deaths (CNN) and Montserrat eruption of 1995 killed 23 people (SLN.org). Nations are often underprepared for this unprecedented amount of dead bodies, lacking mortuary sites, freezers and burial guidelines which is often a reason for tertiary hazards of diseases. For example during the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, Thailand and Indonesia lacked burial sites and the correct refrigeration for human remains. As part of the reconstruction phase mortuary sites can be devised and mass fatality plans to mitigate further hazards of disease (plosmedicine).

During both rehabilitation and reconstruction stages of the Park Model (figure 3.)  are the opportunities to mitigate against future hazards. The Hyogo Framework is a mitigation framework guiding strategies before, during and after to manage a disaster from beginning to end.  

4.0       Conclusion

Tectonic hazards frequently coincide with human settlements meaning there is a vital need for management strategies before, during and after a hazard to prevent, reduce and restore human and economic losses. Due to this overlap of vulnerable populations and hazards (Figure. 1) “adjust” and “leave” are more appropriate strategies that incorporate methods of prediction, prevention, rescue and reconstruction. There is such a contrast in strategies due to appropriateness of strategies for the type of hazard, frequency and management successes reliance on economic development and government prioritisation.

There are, however, anomalies, Chile and Montserrat have invested in prediction and prevention strategies despite being LEDC’s. Chile has prioritised disaster management through strict seismic building codes (CNN), whilst Montserrat has one of the most advanced prediction observatories in the world. This highlights how government commitment and economic development can be mutually exclusive.

There is a cyclical nature to disaster management, the three phases before, during and after are interconnected as the traditional model shows (figure. 2). Without adequate before strategies, the need for during and after strategies will be greater, as will losses. It could be argued before and mitigation strategies are most important as if they are successfully provided they should eliminate or reduce the impacts of the hazard which can reduce the need for any rescue, rehabilitation or reconstruction.

Finally, as the Hyogo Framework states, disaster management strategies must be a priority in all development plans, in all governmental plans and integrated into daily life to create a culture of preparedness.

5.0 Bibliography

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·         Moore et al

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