How should the Daintree be managed?

The Daintree rainforest is situated in North East Queensland, Australia, it is a biodiversity hotspot, biodiversity being the variation of species in an ecosystem, due to its warm tropical climate and close location to the Great Barrier Reef. The Daintree is home to hundreds of species many of which are endemic so it is therefore crucial to protect the rainforest through management schemes to conserve biodiversity whilst utilising the rainforest for communities. The Daintree has many ecological, cultural and importantly economic benefits for local communities as it harbours species with medicinal qualities, is a place of spirituality for aborigines and is a large tourist industry supplying much of the local income. However with tourism and use of the rainforest comes a threat to the biodiversity. When managing the Daintree it is vital to conserve the biodiversity that has been here for millions of years whilst allowing people to enjoy the rainforest and help to fund conservation through economic use of the rainforest.

Biodiversity conservation is a management scheme crucial for the Daintree, by limiting development and retaining 540 blocks of land for pure wildlife whilst reducing planning permission for forest cut backs, habitats and species will remain safe. The Douglas Shire Council imposed planning controls and monitored the impacts of tourism as a management scheme, by allowing tourism they allowed a source of income which in return could be used to fund conservation whilst monitoring the effects of tourism such as pollution and litter. If the level of damage caused by tourism were to become unsustainable, stricter management schemes would be needed such as a limit to the number of tourists allowed per year or guidelines that must be followed by each tourist with a resulting fine if the rules were not abided by. By preserving the biodiversity in the ecosystem the rainforest will retain its natural beauty and species and remain a tourism destination however if management schemes incur boundaries and limited development such as no electricity up to Cooper Creek, tourists may be deterred from visiting having a negative impact on the local economy. Conservation may also be costly and therefore reliant on local government spending or charities, this dependency may mean the Daintree is at risk of a lack of conservation as charity funds can fluctuate.

Whilst conservation is necessary in the Daintree as it provides medicines, spirituality and biodiversity it is also necessary to manage the economic aspect of the rainforest to ensure efficiency and sustainability from the economic activity. The Douglas Shire council also set up plans to actually increase tourists to 550,000 a year to sustain the local economy and improve tourist facilities, including education of the importance of the Daintree. However increasing the number of tourists may increase the threat as tourism can cause litter, footpath erosion and damage so this may not be sustainable. They suggested the ferry price should be raised by $4 to deter some tourists to manage levels whilst using the profit from the ferry transport to assist community infrastructure for locals and biodiversity conservation. Another management scheme involved basing employment on tourism, organic farming, tropical horticulture and small businesses to help the community to gain economic success whilst using “green” schemes to preserve the natural area. By managing a balance between using the Daintree for economic means and using the profit to aid communities and conservation to preserve this ancient hotspot, the Daintree will be able to sustain many more years.

Local governments and councils devised management schemes however charities also help in the management of the Daintree. The Australian Rainforest Foundation is a not for profit scheme dedicated to education, research and habitat rehabilitation. The ARF proposed a management scheme called Operation Big Bird to protect the Cassowary bird in the Daintree, they created a 250km corridor to enable the birds movement, feeding and protection. They also implement a Buy-Back scheme whereby they purchase land from developers in order to reduce the available land for development so it is not destroyed, however this is incredibly costly and may cause conflict with key players such as landowners and investors perhaps management would be more efficient if the ARF were to work together with landowners to plan what is sustainable development and what will cause harm to biodiversity. Local authorities can also help manage the Daintree by providing education on its importance and monitoring the effects of tourism, key functions of the Wet Tropics Management Authority based in Cairns. Its locality means it will know local residents needs and be able to strike a balance between economic and biodiversity needs.

The Daintree has been around for 135 million years practically untouched however in the last 100 years tourism and development have created threats to the high level of biodiversity present. Therefore it is crucial to protect and conserve this hotspot with the help of government policies and charities. The Daintree however is important on not just a biodiversity level but for economic activity so management schemes must incorporate management of income and development into plans so that the Daintree can continue to boost the local economy but not at the expense of the wildlife within it.

Using examples, assess the relative importance of human and physical factors influencing levels of biodiversity.

4 billion years of evolution has resulted in the variation of plants and animals in the largest biome – the earth. Biodiversity is the variation of life forms within an ecosystem or, on a macro scale, a biome. It is often thought the greater the level of biodiversity the healthier an ecosystem is, there are three types of biodiversity: species diversity, the variation of a species, genetic, the diversity between genes in a species and ecosystem diversity which is the variation of ecosystems in an area. With biospheres offering both tangible goods such as medicines and services such as carbon sequestration, preservation of biodiversity rich areas is vital. Physical and human factors can have an evident influence on levels of diversity, both beneficial and costly.

Climate, it could be argued is an extremely influential factor on biodiversity, as many ecosystems are vulnerable to even slight temperature changes. A future global warming could therefore lower the levels of biodiversity as species may find their current biomes inhospitable. The moist and warm equatorial climate of the Amazon rainforest creates an ecosystem for species to thrive in. Tropical climates have an important influence on creating biodiversity hotspots, similarly desert climates have the same influence on biodiversity except the influence is very dissimilar. In sub-saharan Africa the low precipitation levels and temperatures exceeding forty degrees Celsius create an inhospitable environment and sometimes inhabitable location for many species, the lack of plant biodiversity can create a negative multiplier effect as there are few species of animals who can survive on the limited nutrients gained by the lack of plant species and consequently the level of animal biodiversity decreases.  Physical factors such climates are increasingly important in biodiversity levels as global warming intensifies temperatures could rise which could damage fragile ecosystems such as the desert as it could exacerbate the already sparse biodiversity.

Biodiversity in areas such as coral reefs and rainforests is often beautiful as many different colourful species of plants and animals present, this has attracted tourists both global and domestic to visit areas such as The Great Barrier Reef and The Daintree Rainforest. Whilst tourism is incredibly beneficial for the economy providing a source of income it can also be destructive. Pollution from cruise ships and ferries bringing tourists in to view these locations can cause harm to species and water quality which could eradicate a habitat and therefore its inhabitants. The Daintree Rainforest tourism industry is estimated to be over $141 million a year however due to much of the land being privately owned some owners have used their profits to bulldoze trees and create cattle ranches which can have an adverse effect on both the ecosystem and environment as methane pollution is created which can reverse the carbon sequestration the rainforest provides. Human factors can also have a detrimental effect and worsen physical factors, for example coral reefs act as natural shoreline protection against wave erosion , if coral reefs are destroyed by humans due to extracting coral for jewellery and over fishing then the natural protection will diminish, exacerbating the effect of physical factors such as erosion on a beach ecosystem. However, whilst tourism may cause some destruction it could be argued the large revenue they bring could be used to fund preservation of these ecosystems which could create an influx in the level of biodiversity as their ecosystems are not tampered with. There are a multitude of human factors which can influence the level of biodiversity both negative and positive; to be able to visit beautiful biodiversity hotspots we must prevent their destruction in doing so.

Biodiversity hotspots are areas with variation of species in abundance, they also are often home to endemic species making them extremely valuable. The reasons for a hotspot are mainly physical for example Madagascar’s isolated location as an island has created endemism with species such as the Madagascan Lemur and Boabab tree. Another physical factor is the range of volcanoes present in Madagascar which create rich and fertile soil around them which plants can thrive on. However Madagascar’s physical factors could also influence the level of biodiversity in a negative way as isolation and endemism could mean if a species becomes extinct in Madagascar it will become extinct worldwide, reducing species diversity.  The Galapagos Islands are also a biodiversity hotspot as the physical factor of a confluence of three oceans creates a wealth of marine life, however important human factors such as over fishing can not only disrupt food chains and habitats but may also cause extinction of certain species.

Whether it be species, genetic or ecosystem diversity, both physical and human factors bode much importance concerning the influence on the level of variation. Biomes and ecosystems are at risk from many human factors such as tourism and often hindered by physical factors that are uncontrollable. However both physical and human factors can have a positive influence on biodiversity such as tropical climate or conservation. As species evolve and develop so will the impact of physical and human factors both offering an important influence on biodiversity.

With reference to examples examine the impact of alien species on an ecosystem.

Alien species are animals or plants that are foreign to a certain ecosystem, an ecosystem is the dynamics of a certain habitat or ecological location. Once an alien species is immersed into its new habitat it can be both beneficial and negative. Alien species or invasive species can disrupt this dynamic as each trophic level will incur an influx or decrease for example the accidental introduction of the Gypsy Moth in 1869 caused a decrease in vegetation in forests on the East coast of North America as they ate the majority of the leaves, this has an impact on both the producer, as they decreased due to destruction and the trophic level one or consumer, as other animals were unable to use this food source.  Despite this example being accidental introduction, whereby alien species move unintentionally, species are sometimes introduced to provide a purpose usually to benefit its new ecosystem, however the outcomes are often difficult to predict. As the globe becomes more mobile and accessible, alien species are more common. With the introduction of aviation and ships species can be moved to a new environment and disrupt the balance of an ecosystem.

Alien species are sometimes referred to as invasive, this suggests a negative impact of the introduction of alien species. An ecological negative impact alien species can cause is the contribution of foreign disease that native species are not immune to, for example Starling birds were intentionally introduced to America in 1800’s, they brought with them pathogens which contributed to various swine diseases affecting the current ecosystem as diseases spread killing livestock. A further negative impact of the Starling birds was the displacement of native birds, as new alien species are introduced so is new competition for food and habitats, this caused native birds to decline, disrupting the food chain as level three consumers had less to eat. Another example of this is the accidental introduction of the Argentine Fire ant in 1891, this new invasive species spread rapidly and contributed to the reduction of ant species from fifteen to just five in Texas. This suggests alien species have a negative impact on the native, pre-existing species in an ecosystem, this can reduce biodiversity as one alien species can monopolise an ecosystem.

It may seem unusual that alien species can cause economic damage as they are not as influential as human factors such as deforestation or tourism. However the overpopulation of alien species can result in large economic costs for example Deer were introduced in the 1900’s to Angel Island in the San Fransissco Bay area for the purpose of a game reserve, however they quickly reproduced and outgrew the natural food supply, thus competing with native species but starving themselves. Tourists often fed the deer and thus repopulation occurred, the problem continued until the Government had to remove the deer in a lengthy project that cost over $60,000. Another alien species that was accidentally introduced is the Zebra Mussel which was imported from the Caspian sea to the United States in the 1980’s, this alien species began to clog waterways resulting in damage that it is estimated to have cost $5million. Alien species can cause negative impacts for the animals and plants in an ecosystem but also for humans on a local and regional scale due the economic damage caused.

Whilst many alien species can cause negative impacts on an ecosystem there are positive results of the introduction of new animals or plants. Honeysuckle is an alien species in the Happy Valley region of Pennsylvania, whilst considered invasive it is actually beneficial to the area as the bird communities and honeysuckle have formed a relationship. The honeysuckle provides a food source for birds creating biodiversity as species can survive, but also the birds provide re-pollination of the honeysuckle to allowing it to continue to spread, this mutual benefit for both trophic levels is aiding biodiversity and creating a thriving ecosystem due to the introduction of this alien species.

Alien species in their nature are unnatural to an ecosystem, they will disrupt or alter the balance and dynamic of an ecosystem whether it be negatively or positively. Invasive species can cause dramatic changes in the levels of biodiversity in certain ecosystems and cause damage financially, creating a problem for animals, plant and humans. Many species have been originally introduced intentionally for a purpose such as the Deer in Angel Island however the consequences are often not predictable or thought about beforehand creating these negative impacts which could have been prevented had the species not been introduced on purpose. Despite the multitude of problems an alien species can cause, as shown with the honeysuckle example, there can be benefits if both alien and native species adapt to co-exist. 

Reconciliation between the environment and economic development

Biodiversity is the term for the variation in species, high levels of biodiversity in an ecosystem can provide many services and benefits for both people and the planet, so conserving biodiversity in all ecosystems especially hotspots is a crucial part of the future. Another vital element of the future is economic development, with LEDC’s experiencing absolute poverty and the wealth gap widening, economic development will also provide benefits for things such as healthcare and quality of life. The relationship between conserving biodiversity and economic development is often conflicting as economic development in terms of urbanisation can mean deforestation and pollution. Stakeholders such as business owners, TNC’s and environmental charities and groups like WWF have different opinions when it comes to conservation. Biodiversity is often highest in LDC’s where land is left pristine with little economic development, but as development occurs in LEDC’s and NIC’s conservation becomes less of a priority over profit. However, once a country reaches MEDC status it tends to place more importance on conserving ecosystems and has the economic funds to do so due to its prior economic development suggesting that perhaps conserving and economic development can actually go hand in hand.

Ecosystems offer services such as carbon sequestration, medicines and sources of food, however overconsumption of these services and over harvesting can cause extinction and degradation. If humans continue to harvest services at an unsustainable yield  for economic purposes such as cattle ranches for beef, fishing to improve the market and profit and medicines for advancement, these ecosystems will be in jeopardy.  However, whilst an unsustainable yield makes the reconciliation of conservation and economic development improbable, schemes and projects such as the SMMA in St Lucia can help to balance protection and still continue to use the ecosystem for economic benefits for the community. The SMMA was created in response to conflict between marine conservation of coral reefs and industries like fishing and tourism in 1995. They managed the area and conservation of fish species with local stakeholders to ensure conservation did not prevent economic benefits and vice versa. This is an example of how conservation of biodiversity and economic development can co-exist.

The WWF Living Planet Report 2012 highlighted the problems of economic development on conservation, showing how demand of services from the natural world for the developed world is outstripping supply. The LPI has declined by 30% in just 38 years suggesting how increased economic development that has rapidly occurred in the last 50 years has had a negative effect. The LPR also highlighted how if the whole world were to live like an American resident does, using ecosystem services, we would need a total of 4 more Earths to supply this demand showing the vast overconsumption. As the USA is considered one of the worlds most economically developed countries, this statement suggests that economic development and conservation of the natural world are conflicting suggesting it is impossible to reconcile the two.

The Milliennium Ecosystem Assessment was carried out in 2001-2005 and found that changes made to ecosystems have contributed to economic development however at the expense of degradation. They have proposed 4 scenarios for the future of conservation and economic development, scenario 4 “The Technogarden” proposes a most likely eventuality. It suggests the world will become more globally connected and rely strongly on environmentally sound technology and create ecosystems, taking a proactive approach to the management of ecosystems in an effort to avoid further problems. In this scenario technology is continuing to advance and economic growth is high whilst using this technology to create environmentally friendly resources thus enabling conservation and reducing pollution and degradation. The MEA scenario 4 suggests using economic development and technological advancements to conserve biodiversity suggesting not only has biodiversity aided economic development due to its services but in the future economic development will help biodiversity.

Both conservation of biodiversity and economic development are fundamental for the future, often having a conflicting relationship whereby one cannot work with the other in the past perhaps new projects and ideas will alter this once toxic relationship. As many countries begin to excel out of less economically developed country status and move into industrialisation there is concern that further degradation will occur preventing conservation of some of the worlds most precious ecosystems however as suggested by the MEA perhaps once this process of economic development has settled, attention can be turned to preserve and conserve biodiversity using the technology and funds from economic development. Biodiversity offers services used in economic development, whilst economic development can offer the funds to conervse biodiversity suggesting a mutual relationship and suggesting reconciliation is both possible and projected. 

Assess relative importance of cultural, economic and military factors for superpower status

Superpower status is a nations ability to project dominating influence anywhere in the world, the world has moved through stages of uni-polar, bi-polar and seems to be progressing towards a multi-polar world in which there are many superpowers. Superpower is perhaps ambiguous as there are many aspects to a superpower such as economic wealth, military and cultural dominance as well as population and natural resources. Many countries are superpower’s in their own rights each with different attributes, however in the modern world it could be argued Superpower status is more about topicality and culture than hard power such as military force, perhaps if all the world’s a stage then being a superpower is about stage presence.

Britain could be considered the worlds first superpower, industrialising first and through pseudo-scientific scripture the British believed they were superior to the aborigines and indigenous people of America, Indo-Australia and Africa. Establishing a large military was perhaps one of the main components of Britain’s colonial power, as it allowed them to physically conquer and plunder other nations within these continents. A large military force prior to the Post Modern era was perhaps the most important factor as it could be a threatening and violent force that also maintained colonial power for example the British Raj. It was perhaps most important due to the absence of the media and TNC’s that now transmit cultural power and similarly the global economy was infantile in comparison suggesting perhaps economic power was not of great importance. However, that said, military power is still a crucial component of superpower status especially in times of global tension for instance the Cold War and the current political tensions between two rivals of a by-gone era. Nuclear military power is perhaps a modern day element, possessed by the world’s G8 giving them considerable threatening and bargaining power, similarly rising China has established a large military rank. Military power was perhaps the most important feature in the past and perhaps is having new found importance in terms of a threat.

It could be argued economic power in a predominantly capitalist world is an important factor, all the world’s perceived superpowers also hold substantial wealth, wealth is often considered to equate power. The USA could be an example of this, it rose to superpower status after WWII as Europe experienced bankruptcy after the war, the USA however during the war had supplied much equipment for a profit and was now the world’s leading manufacturer similar to that of China and India at present. The USA has over 25% of the world’s GDP and a high percentage of votes in IGO’s and financial institutions such as the World Bank and IMF. This also creates superpower status as control and dominance can be acquired through these organisations as they dictate regulations and loans, dependency theorists may argue the USA can project its imperialism through the IMF’s Structural Adjustment Policies which influence governments in the developing world, acquired by a large voting percentage due to economic wealth. Economic power is perhaps a more subtle and less intrusive form of superpower control yet it is highly influential, wealth is a powerful tool in the modern world.

Cultural power is perhaps the most important factor as it affects civilians and governments alike, whereas economic power is perhaps exclusive to the elite. Cultural power is maintained and transmitted via the media, an entity that exists in almost every nation, even in sub-saharan villages there will be American advertising. It could be argued the USA holds most cultural power with the internationalisation of capitalism, a predominantly American ideology, and Mcdonaldisation, American culture has infiltrated many other cultures. The world could be argued to have becomes as far as culturally homogenous due to the USA’s intrusive and relentless cultural domination, however the rise of China and Russia could reverse the spread of capitalism as they become increasingly dominant with a revival of Russia’s high culture. The BRIC’s may be perhaps increasing their superpower status through this cultural phenomenon as there has been much media frenzy over the rise of such nations placing them in the public eye.

Whilst these three factors are the most important to superpower status, it could be argued there are other factors which may become increasingly important in the future. For example, it is argued we have already had “peak oil” suggesting a naturally resource rich nation such as Brazil or energy giant such as Russia will have more superpower status in the future as they hold an important commodity. Similarly population is a factor, it could be argued the BRIC’s rise is partly due to its large population combined, it boasts half the worlds population and thus controls half the worlds population. There are issues however for China, Japan and the EU with its population demographic, superpower status particularly in economic terms is reliant on a large, healthy active working population, however these nations face an ageing population which if not tackled could see a decline in their production and thus superpower status. Population, resources and demography may be more important than military, economic or cultural power in the future as we enter into a stage of a multi-polar world. 

Superpowers

A superpower  is a country with the “capacity to project dominating power and influence anywhere in the world” A superpower may also be referred to as a hegemon with supreme power over other countries, hegemony refers to being the dominant force, power, ideology.  Superpower status is not fixed, there is a school of thought that suggests the centre of the world is no longer focused on the US but shifting towards Asia. If history repeats itself it is likely the US will fall or decline in superpower status as did the USSR and British Empire. Superpower can be determined by an array of factors such as

·         Land mass – physical size can indicate power, Russia is the worlds largest country, the larger a country the larger its sphere of control and territory, space means more resources, more people, more expansion opportunities. The future of the Arctic with its oil reserves lies mainly in Russia’s hands. However, with size comes more neighbours, Russia has neighbours that are somewhat polar opposites such as Norway a liberal, capitalist country and China an NIC, communist country, meaning its growth and further influence is perhaps stifled or conflicting and whilst this means more opportunity for Russia to exert its influence over more countries it also means it has more chance of opposition

·         Population size – the larger the population the high influence a country can have globally and the larger workforce or labour it has to build its economy

·         Natural resources – a country with natural resources in abundance can be seen as a superpower as they have the capacity to dictate the distribution of these resources or use them to fuel their economy. When countries withhold or limit supply of their natural resources do they gain influence for example the Middle East have threatened to withhold supplies meaning they gain influence over prices, whilst Russia has threatened to cut Ukraine’s supplies and has actually done so in the past, with the current turbulent situation it is likely to use its powerful resources as a weapon against Ukraine, unfortunately Ukraine is a major transit nation for the pipelines leading to Europe.

·         Economic power – the higher gdp and more wealth a country has the more it can invest in new technologies which can make it a power in leading science and technology, the more money it can lend to other countries which can come with conditions and thus influence and the high standard of living a country has, plus more money means more precedence on the worlds stage, it can give a country the worlds most powerful currency i.e the dollar. Unfortunately wealth often means power and a voice.

·         Military power – the more military the more ability to defend and protect and attack another country. The UN tries to dilute military power and has 5 permanent members China, USA, UK, Russia and France, all those who possessed nuclear weapons in the 70’s. The UN approves military action in extreme situations

·         History – historical superpower status such as the British Empire has left lasting legacy of superpower status, despite nearly all countries gaining independence the mark of the British is still upon other countries for example English is one of the most commonly spoken languages in the world. Many former colonies are still main exporting partners with the UK meaning the UK have influence over trade. However, many superpowers such as the USA did not have an extensive colonial legacy and do not have an extensive history yet are considered a superpower

·         Dominant belief system – superpower status can also come in the form of dominant beliefs for example the US is predominantly a Christian country with much influence over the rest of the world through missionaries influencing world religion. Religion is not the only form of dominant belief, capitalism is wide spread and hegemon in the world, capitalism and communism are a dichotomy; therefore there are conflicting regions of the world in which each belief system is dominant. Russia, during Soviet Union years looked to spread the belief in communism to the East and South easterly however capitalism was promoted by the worlds largest superpower the US and with help from aid and investment was spread into South Korea and Japan which stifled the expansion of communism

Old superpowers

The world has changed dramatically in the last 70 years with the fall of the British Empire, collapse of communism and subsequent break up of the USSR. Previously the concept of superpower status regarded the British Empire, USA and the Soviet Union, however after these world changing incidents, superpower status has become more wide spread and more ambiguous. For instance, the emergence of the Asian Tigers has led many writers to assume these countries will be economically worthy of superpower status, whilst the rise of the BRIC countries in terms of trade and establishment on the world stage has created uncertainty over who are today’s superpowers. Whilst the UK may still be considered an influential country it is perhaps declining in superpower status as other countries begin to rise in global influence. The world is likely to change and progress substantially in the next 70 years also, as the BRIC’s, MINT’s (Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria, Turkey) and various other countries establish their place globally in their own rights.

The British Empire was an imperialist system, the USA is a capitalist system and the USSR was a communist system. In the Cold War era 1945-90 the world was bi-polar with two major superpowers The USA and USSR. The USSR created a strong core by invading or allying itself with its surrounding countries (Mackinder Heartland theory).

The USA has allies in the form of Western Europe through NATO, Japan and South Korea through military and investment ties, Africa and Asian countries through military and aid. The USSR had allies with Eastern Europe, other socialist states such as Cuba and Africa and Asian countries through military particularly Somalia.

They both had strong militaries and intelligence agencies the CIA (US) and KGB (USSR), both countries had nuclear weapons as a threat. The US grew its cultural influence through popular culture via film, tv, music conveying the American Dream and idealistic view of capitalism, a lack of censorship meant negative views of America could be transmitted however America was promoting a free country and freedom of the press. The USSR tried to sell itself as a country of high culture such as ballet, music and art, Russian ballet is renowned in the world. There was tight censorship allowing no criticism.

The Cold War did not entail military action between the two superpowers but was more of an ideological battle, however various events created moments of high tension such as the Vietnam war, Korean war, Berlin wall, Cuban missile crisis.

Other forms of superpowers:

Organisations and economic groupings can also be considered Superpowers despite the fact they are not single countries. For example OPEC may be the leading superpower in terms of natural resources such as oil however with the expansion of Russian energy and new technologies such as shale gas, this influence and power may be declining. The UN is the global superpower in a sense that it often has access to many countries in the world, it is used to neutralise military power from its 5 permanent member states and has control and responsibility for millions of refugees in a sense its population is large. The EU can be considered a superpower as with 27 members it is the largest economic grouping and takes a substantial portion of the worlds global GDP, it has influence over its members with common laws, a supposedly common currency and free trade. Other forms of superpower could be considered in modern day world to be TNC’s, many TNC’s have more power and influence than many LEDC’s, they possess the power to locate where they choose and leave when they choose, they possess huge amounts of wealth and are often involved in the arms trade meaning their influence is not isolated to economics. TNC’s have also shown the ability to dictate which countries develop into emerging superpowers and which ones stay as inferior, for example TNC’s have chosen or been tempted by governments to invest in Asian countries and neglected Africa, meaning money, manufacturing, TNC status have all helped boost Asian countries whilst Africa has lost out.

Neo-colonialism refers to the indirect control from former empires on former colonies, neo-colonialism is argued to keep countries in a state of dependency through TNC’s and wage labour, natural resource extraction and cash crop farming, through cultural imperialism and through aid which causes a country to become in debted to the giving country. Another way of keeping a country inferior is the patenting of technology and medical advances which incur a royalty fee to use, this means much technology is unavailable to poor countries stunting their growth and keeping them underdeveloped.

Evaluate the schemes being used to secure future water supplies?

As the worlds population reaches the 7 billion mark, the need to secure water supplies grows in equal measure. 1.4 billion people lack clean water already so projects to sustain water supplies are incredibly imperative in order to sustain life on earth. Many projects are tackling this issue such as Water aid in Mali and Clear Water in Australia however despite there being a multitude of projects their success could be debated.

The Himalayas have been experiencing water shortages due to various factors such as pollution in China’s Yangtze River and India’s swelling population. In Nepal, poverty plays a big part in providing water security, a non-governmental organisation called SWASTHA (strengthening water, air, sanitation and hygiene treasuring health) has been implemented by Practical Action. Using advancements in technology they aim to improve water quality, availability and provide sustainable methods of irrigation. A benefit of using technology such as solar powered water pumps to increase access to water is that it does not harm the local environment as it uses natural sun energy rather than large dams and allows a fairly quick fix. However it could be argued this is not appropriate technology for Nepal’s poorest as they will not be able to fund maintenance or replacement panels and must be dependent on the intermittent sun, instead of gaining control over their own water security they are dependent on Practical Action to provide these panels. Despite this flaw of one element of the project it must be remembered that SWASHTHA is also teaching effective irrigation techniques to farmers to enable them to not only control their use of water and protect them from wastage but also increase their food security as they can grow their own crops.

Across from Nepal, Pakistan is situated, facing increasingly worse water scarcity. The government has created the WAPDA (Water and Power Development Authority) scheme to store and replenish water supplies by investing in extensive dams. WAPDA was created in 1959 to undertake the task of planning schemes for irrigation and water development and has since built various dams including the Diamer-Bhasha on the River Indus. The dam does not only store 10km3 acres of water but generates 4,500 megawatts of electricity for Pakistan helping to aid development in industry. WAPDA plans to make the dam a tourist spot as well to further boost economic turnover however the cost of the construction will reach over $20million and take a further 12 years to complete. This scheme is a long term project and not a fast solution for Pakistans water security suggesting it’s benefits will not be reaped anytime soon. As well as the cost, the scheme has had to resettle thousands of residents whilst building work takes place, uprooting and disrupting livelihoods and homes. Despite the schemes overwhelming negative outcomes there are potential benefits such as the creation of 15,000 jobs and the ability to secure large quantities or water and store for devised and gradual use to sustain Pakistans water.

These are two examples of both bottom up and top down projects that aim to secure future water by acting now. The benefits of a bottom up such as Practical Action is it works with communities and educates safe and sustained water management to produce generations of people who will use their water effectively and have access to it. Bottom up projects are usually controversial as they tend to overlook residents as highlighted by WAPDA’s resettlements, however they have the power of money to secure large amounts of water. When it comes to water security there is no simple solution to protecting future supplies but as scarcity increases more schemes will have to take place perhaps leaving the door open for other issues such as conflict, strain and disruption as the water war continues.